¥ define the terms: special needs handicap and disability;
¥ understand the major legislative antecedents to educating learners with special needs in technology education;
¥ describe the general characteristics of learners with special needs;
¥ understand the components of the Individualized Education Program;
¥ identify a continuum of placement options in technology education for students with disabilities;
¥ discuss various strategies for enhancing accessibility of learners with special needs in technology education; and
¥ describe methods of adapting technology education facilities, curriculum and instructional practices for students with disabilities.
Technology education teachers have a responsibility to provide educational experiences for all learners. For the most part, teachers have accepted this challenge. However, children with special needs or special abilities present unique opportunities for technology education teachers. Clearly, the use of the label "special needs" may alert us to "problems" which may (or may not) be real challenges in the way we plan our instructional environment. The use of various labels (e.g., mentally-retarded and hearing-impaired) associated with the term "special needs" play on our preconceived notions or values associated with children who are different. Ironically, if most of the students we encounter (as special-needs students) were never identified (or labeled) we would teach them with little (or no) adjustments in our instructional approaches and never know the difference.
Labels, as used to define special needs, are not the problem. The attitudes and negative stereotypes resulting from the use of labels are the real source of difficulty for many of us. For example, if we said, "Ms. Thomas, on Monday you will receive a physically-handicapped boy in your technology education class," the image associated with this statement would mean different things to each of us. The image would range from a "totally dependent, severely-retarded student" to "a student with a mild physical impairment (which can easily be dealt with) of normal or above normal intelligence." Such problems occur when the focus is on the disability of the student and not on the student as a person.
In the above example, we would be better off focusing on the student and not on his/her disability. Lovitt (1979) suggests we call exceptional students by their names, placing the emphasis on the student role of the individual and not on the disability. Therefore, we might amend our earlier statement to read, "Ms. Thomas, on Monday you will receive Kendall, an eighth grade pupil with cerebal palsy." In this example we acknowledge the disability, but also imply that this student is a person (or student) as well. It is always good practice to focus on the student first (by name if possible) and the disability second.
If labels associated with the term "special-needs" are bad, then why use them? Many opponents to labels have proposed alternative forms of classifying special-needs students which would focus on skills or educationally relevant variables instead of pupils' disabilities. Just as such alternatives to labels are gaining support, the use of traditional labels (and classification systems) for special-needs students will likely continue as such practices are linked to legislative, legal, political and funding initiatives.
All of us (including our students) have special needs. Some of us, for example, need corrective lenses, or hearing aides, in order to see or hear to perform simple production tasks with tools or materials. Moreover, if we have been afflicted with such health problems as diabetes, allergies, arthritis, or hypertension, we may require the use of medications to help us function as "normal" individuals.
Some of us "normal" individuals are stronger than others and some of us read or write better than others. Have you ever wondered why some of us seem to be more proficient in the use of technology (e.g., "fixing things") than others?
The differences among most of us (and our students) on the large scale are relatively small and the majority of us benefited (or can benefit) from a general education program with no adjustments or adaptations (Heward & Orlansky, 1992). When the differences among us differ significantly from the norm and the standard education program is not adequate in helping us realize the maximum benefit from our potential, then we may require a specialized or adapted program to help meet our special needs. These needs may require technology educators to modify instructional methods, curricular materials, and/or laboratory machines, tools or facilities.
The term "special needs" is most often used in the field of vocational education. It receives its impetus from vocational education legislation and includes both handicapped (disabled) and disadvantaged students as well as other groups such as Limited English Proficiencies (LEP) persons, persons in corrections and the gifted and talented (National Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1979).
Special educators use the term "exceptional learners" to include both children who have behavioral/learning problems and those who are intellectually gifted (Heward & Orlansky, 1992). The legislative impetus for exceptional children comes primarily from special education legislation. (Note: Currently, there are no federal mandates for the gifted and talented.)
At-risk learners are students who are not currently identified as handicapped or disabled but are considered to have a better than average chance of developing a handicap or dropping out of high school prior to graduation. These learners are almost always disadvantaged economically or educationally. While there is no current federal mandate to serve "at risk" students, several states have enacted such legislation.
In early (mid-1970's) special education and vocational education legislation, the term handicap was used to define the categories of mental retardation, learning disabilities, emotional or behavioral disorders, speech and language disorders, hearing and visual impairments, and physical and other health impairments. Recent legislation and current practices call for the use of the term "disability" as opposed to "handicap" when making reference to the aforementioned groups of exceptional children.
Heward and Orlansky (1992) differentiate between the terms "disability" and "handicap" in the following ways.
Disability refers to reduced function or loss of a particular body part or organ; the term impairment is often used synonymously. A disability limits the ability to perform certain tasks (e.g., to see, hear, walk) in the same way that most nondisabled persons do. A disabled person is not handicapped, however, unless the physical disability leads to educational, personal, social, vocational, or other problems. If a child who has lost a leg, for example, can learn to use an artificial limb and thus function in and out of school without problems, she is not handicapped.
Handicap refers to the problems a person with a disability or impairment encounters in interacting with the environment. A disability may pose a handicap in one environment but not in another. The child with an artificial limb may be handicapped when competing against nondisabled peers on the basketball court but experience no handicap in the classroom. The term handicapped children is more restrictive than exceptional children and does not include gifted and talented children. (p. 8)
The United States Department of Education reports to Congress on a yearly basis on the country's disabled children. Data from the 1988-1989 school year (U.S. D.E., 1990, as reported in Heward & Orlansky, 1992) depict disabled students as follows.
1. 4.5 million disabled children, or 6.7% of the resident population from birth to age 21, received special educational services during the 1988-1989 school year.
2. The number of children and youth receiving special education has grown since the count began in 1976, with an increase of 24%.
3. Disabled children represent about 9.4% of the entire school population.
4. Four types of disabilities account for 94% of all school-age children receiving special education: learning disabilities (48%), speech and language impairments (23%), mental retardation (14%), and emotional disturbance (9%).
5. The number of children labeled learning disabled has grown dramatically (up 152%) since the federal government began collecting and reporting child count data in 1976-1977.
6. The number of students labeled mentally retarded has decreased steadily; in 1988-1989, there were 36% fewer students reported in the category than in the 1976-1977 school year.
7. About twice as many males as females receive special education.
8. The vast majority (approximately 90%) of school-age children receiving special education are "mildly-disabled."
9. Based on the above data, the "typical" child receiving special education in the United States is a 9-year-old boy with learning disabilities who spends part of each school day in the regular classroom and part in a resource room.
There have been several significant pieces of federal legislation which have provided the basis for the education of special-needs learners. Most of this legislation has been in the areas of special and vocational education and deals with students who are disabled (formerly referred to as handicapped), disadvantaged (vocational education only) or other special-needs areas such as Limited English Proficiency or criminal offenders (vocational education only). Following is a summary of these legislative initiatives [Adapted from Heron & Harris (1990) and Friedenberg, Izzo, & Cartledge (1990)].
In light of the special educational needs of children of low-income families, this act provides federal assistance to local education agencies for the improvement of educational programs in low income areas.
This act provides that ten percent of vocational education funds are to be spent for individuals with disabilities.
This act replaces all Vocational Rehabilitation Act Amendments since P.L. 66-236. It provides for an individualized written rehabilitation program for each individual with disabilities (similar to IEP required in P.L. 94-142). Stimulated demonstration projects targeting employment preparation and transition for youth. Designated youth as well as adults as recipients of vocational rehabilitation services. Prohibited discrimination and required facilities to be accessible.
This act extends the powers of the Bureau of Education of the Handicapped. It provides authorization to disburse funds for training and research. This act provides funding for supplementary educational programs, including programs for children with disabilities.
P.L. 93-380 provides for the establishment of an administrative unit with the Office of Education to coordinate programs and activities related the gifted and talented as well as a national clearinghouse to collect and disseminate relevant data.
This act amended P.L. 94-517. Changes made include the following. The definition of the term developmental disability was broadened to include autism and dyslexia; however, the latter individuals must also suffer from mental-retardation, cerebral palsy, or autism; all developmental-disabilities grantees must take affirmative action to employ and advance qualified persons with disabilities; a comprehensive performance-based system for evaluation of services must be provided.
This act, now named the Individuals with Disabilities Act, contains the major financial support mechanism and represents the essential educational rights guarantees for individuals with disabilities. This landmark piece of legislation provided the basis for a free appropriate public education; a multifactored evaluation to be conducted every three years; an Individualized Education Program (IEP); due process and education in the least restrictive environment (the basis for mainstreaming).
Mandated that 10% of a state's federal grant for vocational education was to provide services for students with disabilities.
Provides funding and programs to assist in the employment of economically disadvantaged youth and adults. Promotes involvement in local businesses and industry through the Private Industry Council (PIC).
Extended many of the provisions of P.L. 94-142 including permission for states to use incentive funds to serve preschool children less than three years of age; required census data on exceptional students exiting programs and the development of transition programs.
Called for assessment of student interests, abilities and special-needs. Provided for special services such as curriculum and equipment facility modifications. Nurtured coordination between vocational and special education.
Extended rights and protections of P.L. 94-142 to all students birth to five and their families. Contains infant and preschool components with differential funding. An Individual Family Services Plan (IFSP) is prescribed by the law.
Requires appropriate assessment prior to training and includes persons with disabilities as eligible JTPA participants. This act has provided additional resources for persons with disabilities for job training.
Specified vocational planning of persons with disabilities to be a collaborative effort between vocational education, special education and vocational rehabilitation agencies. Provision of counseling services to facilitate transition from school to postschool employment and career opportunities.
Civil rights legislation aimed at protecting the disabled's rights in the private sector. Specific employment practices prohibiting discrimination against persons with disabilities. Provides mandates for public accommodations in hotels, shopping malls, schools, etc. Mandates accessibility for public transportation.
Aside from renaming previous Education of the Handicapped Acts as the Individuals with Disabilities Act, adds two additional categories of disability (autism and brain injury). Also, provided for the specification of transition services on the IEP and upgraded related services to include rehabilitation counseling and social work services.
Students with disabilities are learners who have specific or general disability conditions that may interfere with their functioning in a regular school environment. These disabilities may be sensory, physical, emotional or any combination of the three. There are several terms used to classify students with disabilities. Among these are the mentally-retarded, learning-disabled, behavior-disordered (emotionally disturbed), communication-disordered (speech and hearing), hearing impaired, visually-impaired, physical and health impaired and students with severe disabilities.
Technology education professionals will most often provide educational experiences for students who fall into the category of high-prevalence disabled (those who comprise approximately ninety-four percent of the total population of learners with disabilities). Among this group are students who are the learning-disabled, communication-disabled, mentally-retarded and behavior-disordered.
Low-prevalence learners with disabilities may occasionally be placed in regular technology education programs. These learners include hearing and visually-impaired learners, physical and other health-impaired learners and those learners with severe disabilities. Some of these learners may be placed into access/barrier free technology education programs or may simply be accommodated with the help of an interpreter or tutor. Others may require self-contained placements due to the severity of their disability. (See later section on "Placement Options".)
The placement of low-prevalence learners into the least restrictive environment must be determined through an extensive multifactored evaluation conducted by qualified specialists. Technology education educators may be involved in the evaluation procedure particularly to help assess a student's potential to function in a technology education learning environment. Generally, these special-needs students will require support services in addition to an access/barrier-free building; for example, interpreters, educational tutors/aides and adaptive production jigs or fixtures.
The following provides a brief description of various disability conditions as outlined by Buffer and Scott (1986). These descriptions should help in understanding of the general physical, intellectual and social characteristics of students with disabilities.
Mildly retarded students will blend into society if given appropriate educational experiences that enable them to live and work independently. Typically, these students have an IQ between fifty and eighty and can be expected to learn to read and perform math skills at a level averaging between third and fourth grade. Also, mildly-retarded students are often characterized by poor self-concepts and show deficits in adaptive (social) behavior. Mildly-retarded students have traditionally been served in resource rooms and mainstreamed environments in elementary and secondary school programs.
Moderately-retarded students tend to learn at a slower rate than do the mildly-retarded. The moderately-retarded can be taught tasks or activities which require single skills under adequate supervision. These students normally have IQ's below fifty, and intellectually, do not develop beyond forty-five percent of "normal." Many are now being integrated into public school programs as a result of P.L. 94-142.
The severely-retarded have an IQ range of twenty-five to forty and require supervision during the majority of tasks that they perform. With appropriate training and supervision, many of these persons tend to function well in sheltered workshop environments.
The profoundly-retarded are those students with IQ's below twenty-five. They require a maximum amount of supervision, especially with tasks requiring self-care. Generally, the mainstreaming of severely and profoundly retarded in the public school is not to be perceived as an appropriate placement.
Learning-disabled children have normal or above average intelligence but exhibit a specific learning-disorder in one or more basic processes involved in understanding or using spoken or written language. Their learning problems are not due to visual, hearing, motor or environmental handicaps, nor are they the result of mental-retardation or emotional-disturbances. Typically disorders that may cause learning disabilities are perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia.
Hyperactive or hypoactive children are perceived as having behavioral-handicaps because they exhibit inappropriate behaviors or feelings that interfere with normal functioning in school. Most of these children can adjust well to the regular classroom with appropriate medical, psychological and educational intervention.
Students with behavior disorders exhibit undesirable behaviors or feelings over a long period of time that adversely affect educational performance. Such children have an inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, social or health factors. School-related characteristics may include poor interpersonal relationship with peers and teachers; a general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; periods of self-stimulation or withdrawal and a tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. The term includes autistic or schizophrenic children, most of whom may profit subsequently from instruction as determined through comprehensive evaluation.
Visually-impaired students are handicapped in a normal educational program by their difficulty or inability to see. Under this heading, students are classified as partially-sighted, legally-blind, or profoundly-blind. However, many have demonstrated the ability to develop proficiency in using technology education equipment with some modification of the learning environment. Partially-sighted or legally-blind students are those who can learn to read print, but whose vision is limited (even with corrective devices) and who need modifications in order to succeed in a normal educational program. Partially-sighted persons have a vision of 20/70 to 20/200 with corrective lenses. Legally-blind persons have less than 20/200 vision with spectacles.
The profoundly-blind comprise the most severe visual classification. They cannot tell light from darkness and as a result, cannot see print. (But can benefit from instruction in Braille.) These students must depend totally on their other senses to function satisfactorily in an educational program.
Students with physical-disabilities are normally limited in mobility, sitting, and/or the use of tools and equipment because of muscular, skeletal or neuromuscular impairment. Causes of physical disabilities are cerebral palsy, spina bifida, curvature of the spine, muscular dystrophy, hemophilia or other defects in legs, arms, neck or hips. Physically-disabled students are generally average or above average in intelligence and can function in a regular school environment that has been adapted and made barrier/access free.
Hearing-impaired students have a loss of hearing which affects their performance in a normal educational setting. Their sense of hearing can be limited in many ways. For example, if students cannot hear the ordinary sounds of activity around them, then they are considered deaf. However, when students can hear, but only hear part of what is said, then they are considered hard-of-hearing. Hearing losses may be mild, moderate, severe or profound.
Hard-of-hearing individuals have some ability to hear and understand the spoken word. Although some words may be audible, the pitch and frequency of these sounds may make it difficult for these persons to ascertain their meanings. Sounds are not necessarily just softer to these individuals but may also be garbled and distorted. Some hard-of-hearing students may require the use of hearing aids and/or rely on lip reading. Likewise, deaf individuals must always rely on the use of an interpreter and/or lip reading.
Students with communication-disorders (speech and hearing) normally have speech patterns that are noticeably different from the norm. There are many forms of speech impairment, ranging from complete inability to speak to minor articulatory defects. Furthermore, there are many causes for speech difficulties, ranging from delayed speech and hearing impairments to cerebral palsy and cleft palate.
Other health-mpaired students are so categorized because they demonstrate limited strength, vitality and alertness. The conditions of the other health-impaired students are caused by chronic health problems such as heart conditions, tuberculosis, rheumatic fever, nephritis, hepatitis, asthma, epilepsy, leukemia, diabetes, cystic fibrosis or acquired immune deficiency (AIDS).
Students with severe disabilities exhibit extreme deficits in intellectual functioning and may also manifest problems with motor functioning; communication, visual, and auditory-impairments and medical conditions such as seizure-disorders (Heward & Orlansky, 1992). These students may be severely or profoundly-retarded (eluded to earlier), autistic and may have a combination of two disabilities such as deaf/blind. By and large, these students will require services beyond regular and special education and, therefore, will not be placed in technology education programs.
Disadvantaged students have academic or economic disadvantages which impede their ability to function in regular technology education programs. These students typically may be members of families with low incomes, low or underachievers or culturally or linguistically isolated (e.g., unfamiliar with American customs or the English language). Generally, disadvantaged children are of normal or above average intelligence but fail to achieve in the regular school environment.
Academically-disadvantaged students often display language difficulties, reading or writing problems, severe computational difficulties or other general learning problems. These students may be frequently absent from school, have a short attention span and display low motivation when in class. They are often self-conscious and easily discouraged, have low self-concepts and express feelings of isolation.
Economically-disadvantaged students typically are members of families whose incomes are below the national poverty level, or their parents are unemployed or are recipients of public assistance. Generally, these students exhibit many of the same behaviors as academically-disadvantaged students.
Gifted and talented students are those who, by virtue of outstanding abilities, are capable of exceptionally high performance academically, physically or creatively. However, these students will not live up to their full potential unless challenged in the instructional environment. Teachers should not assume that gifted children will take care of themselves because of their superior intelligence. The gifted also have unique needs, and as a result, require enriched and challenging activities guided by a caring and stimulating instructor. In fact, unless they are challenged, their talent and creativity may be directed toward disruptive behavior.
Public Law 94-142, The Education for All Handicapped (Disabled) Children Act of 1975 and its amendments (The Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1990) specify that each identified child with disabilities should have an Individualized Education Program (I.E.P.). The Individualized Education Program (IEP) provides an excellent source for student assessment, identification of individual needs and development of instructional activities for the learner.
Each IEP should include as a minimum.
1. A statement of the child's present level of educational performance.
2. A statement of annual goals, including short-term instructional objectives.
3. A statement of the specific special education and related services to be provided to the child and the extent to which the child will be able to participate in the regular educational programs.
4. The projected dates for initiation of services and the anticipated duration of the services.
Appropriate objective criteria and evaluation procedures and schedules for determining, on at least an annual basis, whether the short-term instructional objectives are achieved. Technology education teachers may become involved in the development of the IEP as either members of the development team or as consultant to that team. The information presented in the IEP should serve as a guide for curriculum modifications needed to accommodate specific handicapped students into technology education programs and also document the need for supportive resources.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1990 adds a requirement that the I.E.P. include a statement of these needed transition services.
1. beginning no later than age sixteen.
2. beginning at age fourteen or earlier, if necessary.
3. including a statement of interagency responsibilities or linkages before the student leaves the school setting.
The IDEA defines transition as:
A coordinated set of activities for a student, designed within an outcome-oriented process, which promotes movement from school to post-school activities, including post-secondary education, vocational training, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living or community participation. The coordinated set of activities shall be based upon the individual student's needs, taking into account the student's preference and interests, and shall include instruction, community experiences, the development of employment and other post-school adult living objectives and, when appropriate, acquisition of daily living skills and functional vocational evaluation.
Traditionally, technology education teachers have had little input into writing the I.E.P. However, with the addition of transition, both technology education and vocational education teachers may be asked to provide input into the I.E.P. process.
As mentioned earlier, the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) should be very prescriptive in terms of the extent of services that learners with disabilities will receive when mainstreamed into technology education classes. For example, some pupils might be totally mainstreamed, with no supportive services. On the other hand, moderate to severely-disabled students could be placed in a self-contained technology education classroom for a limited period of work adjustment before being selectively integrated into regular classes.
A continuum of technology education placement options (Buffer & Scott, 1986) is shown in Fig 1. A description of these placement options follows.
This placement option encompasses a program which is currently offered to non-disabled students enrolled in technology education programs. It provides supportive assistance to students to enhance and support their educational experience.
The services needed to implement this option are those that are currently being provided to students who are enrolled in regular technology education. In other words, no additional services or resources are needed. Students are placed in technology education with no adjustments to instructional strategies or resources.
This placement option is designed to serve students with disabilities who are enrolled in regular technology education classes, but who may require an adjustment to their program in order to succeed. These students may not require additional aids or services to function in the regular program; however, teachers may have to use alternative teaching strategies including peer tutoring, small group instruction and the use of various audio-visual resources.
The services needed to implement this option include the provision of technical assistance to the instructors in order to assist them in developing the flexibility to adjust their teaching methods in the technology education program. It may require careful examination and adjustment of program guidelines to assure flexibility in order to meet students' individual instructional needs. An example would be the provision for oral tests for poor readers.
This placement option is designed to provide supplemental aids and/or specialized supportive personnel necessary for students with disabilities to receive appropriate technology education in the regular educational environment in accordance with an individualized plan. This instruction may supplement the technology education instruction but should not supplant the regular instructional program.
The services needed to implement this placement option are those aids and specialized supportive personnel necessary to enable handicapped learners to receive an appropriate technology education program in the regular technology education classroom. The aids may include, but not be limited to, the following.
1. Laboratory equipment adaptations
2. Instructional materials development/modification
3. Transportation
4. Instructional materials and various teaching aids
5. Specialized equipment and adaptive devices
This placement option is designed to serve students with disabilities whose conditions are so severe that they require a modification of location from the regular technology education program to provide part-time or full-time technology education. This option may be located in a:
1. Public school building
2. Separate school in the district
3. Public school program located in a separate facility
4. County board of mental retardation and developmental disabilities facility
5. State residential school for the deaf or for the blind
6. State institution
The services needed to implement this option should consist of instruction that is as close as possible to that of a regular technology education program. Instruction provided under this option would occur in a self-contained classroom with the goal of mainstreaming the student into one of the previously mentioned options as soon as possible. It should not be viewed as a permanent placement, unless it is the least restrictive alternative placement which maximizes the potential of the learner.
As previously mentioned, students with special-needs (especially students with disabilities) may be integrated into technology education along a continuum of placement options. Some students may need special adaptations to the instructional practices, curriculum and/or the instructional environment (e.g., facility/tools/equipment). Others may be integrated into technology education with little or no required adaptations. When making adaptations there are some general principles that should guide decisions of "when" and "how" to adapt.
1. Adaptations should be done to remove the situation which is "handicapping" the disabled student's full participation in technology education. The extent of the adaptation should be only to remove the handicapping barrier but to still allow a "challenge" for the student.
2. "Common sense" should prevail. Most adaptations should be done in the spirit of using good "common sense." Many times consultation with the pupil can provide insight into the nature and extent of adaptations.
3. Physical adaptations should be made to insure the safety of the student with disabilities.
A common approach to adapting technology education instruction to meet the special-needs and capabilities of low functioning exceptional-learners is to assign fewer and simpler projects often using patterns or kits, fewer and less complex laboratory experiments, fewer or no related reading assignments and to reduce achievement criteria and testing. The emphasis has been on "craft-like" projects to keep the students busy and happy. Generally speaking, the expected achievement performance has been much lower than that established for non-handicapped children. Moreover, such performance criteria as time, rate of progress, critical specifications and problem-solving activities are relaxed when adjusting instruction for retarded youth. However, since exceptional-learners will compete and function in our technological society, they must be required to actively perform challenging and relevant laboratory activities. These students can learn if given the opportunity and proper instruction. Further, appropriate placement and effective use of instructional technology are a must. Examples include the use of cassette tape recorders to record lessons, individualized computer-assisted instruction lessons, interactive video and the design and use of adaptive devices (e.g., jigs and fixtures).
Generally, modification of tools, facility or equipment are only needed for certain students with disabilities. For example, students in wheelchairs need some special adaptations to desks, machinery and workbenches; but these problems can usually be remediated on an individual basis. Elevators, ramps, wall railings, wide aisles and specially-designed restroom facilities are a few examples of building changes that may be necessary to accommodate some ambulatory students.
Some adaptation must be made to ensure the safe and effective use of tools and equipment in the technology education laboratory. For example, teachers have made "jigs" and "fixtures" to allow physically and sensory-impaired students to use power machinery and tools to manufacture products. Such devices serve as "enablers" to compensate for one's limited cognitive to psychomotor functioning much as spectacles improve a person's ability to read. Other enablers may include a combination of flashing lights and bells which may be used as a signaling system in the laboratory to accommodate both hearing and visually-impaired children. Work stations may need to be continually examined to ensure that adequate safety devices are in place and that physical obstacles are removed to enable sensory or physically-impaired students full access to the production laboratory.
By and large, technology education teachers possess general technical "know-how" when it comes to designing special adaptive equipment. However, consultation with special education professionals is a "must" when assessing individual needs and making subsequent adaptation.
Modification of curriculum materials and instructional approaches may be necessary to meet the individual needs of various special-needs students. For example, technology education teachers may need to provide more visual materials for learning disabled or disadvantaged youth, while employing various behavior modification teaching strategies for certain groups of mentally-retarded or behavior-disordered learners. Furthermore, enrichment activities may need to be structured for talented and gifted students to provide a challenging learning environment.
When modifying curriculum materials and instructional approaches it is necessary to apply sound educational principles that will help all students, especially those who have special-needs. The following is a list of some general instructional strategies and techniques which might be used when planning and organizing technology education programs for special-needs youth.
1. Use both visual and verbal teaching techniques.
2. Vary teaching techniques--make use of modeling, imitation, discussion/lecture, demonstration and other techniques.
3. Reinforce appropriate behaviors that are in context with desired learning outcomes. An adequate feedback system should be provided, whether it be verbal or nonverbal, oral or written. Lessons should be planned so that appropriate feedback and reinforcers are provided.
4. Organize instruction to guarantee some degree of successful learning outcomes. Do not perpetuate the "failure syndrome" associated with some special-needs youth.
5. Use assessment data to ascertain the optimum level at which the special needs learner can work. Work that is too easy will not challenge the learner. Likewise, material that is too diffiult will cause unnecessary anxiety thus reducing student motivation and ability to learn.
6. Repetition is an important teaching technique for most learners and usually creates a positive momentum for teaching hands-on learning activities.
7. Help students develop a sequential and simple way of correcting problems which might occur. Keep steps small and build on previously learned tasks.
8. Special education teachers and tutors can correlate the teaching of related subject matter to technical production activities. Also, remedial instruction in basic-subject skills may be provided.
9. Special-needs students should be made to feel a part of the technology education class, rather than "separate" or "special." Facilitate their active participation in group activities such as mass production and laboratory maintenance so that they perceive themselves as an integral part of the learning team.
10. Technical or related-career information should, whenever possible, be integrated with laboratory activities and real-life examples to show the immediate application of the information.
In addition to the aforementioned general instructional strategies and techniques that apply to all special-needs learners, there are some specific instructional strategies which have a direct relationship to respective special needs. These strategies are outlined in the following charts.
1. Provide current periodicals and books written on appropriate reading levels.
2. Encourage group projects that facilitate social development.
3. Offer praise and encouragement.
4. Use a wide variety of instructional media and materials.
5. Provide relevant and concrete activities.
6. Relate "hands-on" experiences to development of communication and social skills.
7. Provide activities that are short in duration.
8. Use "real-life" experiences (e.g., field trips and guest speakers).
9. Use opportunities to visit the student's home.
10. Make goals clear and simple.
1. Use a highly-structured, routine-oriented method of teaching.
2. Explain the standard of acceptable behavior: be firm, fair and consistent in discipline.
3. Use behavior management teaching strategies (e.g., positive reinforcement).
4. Reduce visual and auditory distractions.
5. Set one goal at a time and approach goals in a step-by-step, sequential fashion.
6. Post rules.
7. Provide opportunities for the student to verbalize problems to you.
1. Encourage research and development activities.
2. Provide activities that are challenging.
3. Avoid activities that call for routine and drill.
4. Build abstract reasoning and conceptualization into activities.
5. Be responsive to diverse questions which may appear to be unusual.
6. Realize that the pupil may know more than the teacher about some subjects.
7. Encourage creativity in assignments.
8. Don't "label" a student in front of his/her peers.
1. To help the hearing-impaired student lip-read better:
A. Always face the student when speaking.
B. Articulate clearly and with normal speed, enunciating each word but without exaggerating or over-pronouncing.
C. Speak in a natural tone of voice.
D. Stand still when talking and keep within close range of the
pupil.
E. Rephrase sentences if the student doesn't seem to understand,
you may be using words with which he or she is not familiar or a
particular combination of lip movements may be very difficult
to lip-read.
F. Avoid standing with your back to a window or light source.
G. Let your expressions and motions include emphasis and feeling.
H. Avoid covering your mouth with your hands.
2. Be sure that the student is paying attention when you assign him or her a task.
3. Try to maintain eye contact with the students.
4. Write on the board without speaking. Then turn back to the class and speak.
5. Use many visual aids and written materials.
6. Provide outlines and vocabulary lists for any complicated topic being discussed.
7. Seat the student advantageously when he or she is participating in a group.
8. Provide the student with a brief outline or script printouts to follow a lecture, movie or filmstrip.
9. Hearing-impaired students may have difficulty reading the lips of male teachers with large quantities of facial hair.
1. Give written and oral tests.
2. Provide visual clues to problem-solving tasks.
3. Double space typed handouts.
4. Keep assignments simple (reduce to one task).
5. Introduce vocabulary words before teaching an activity.
6. Have the student repeat steps of assembly tasks to you.
7. Underline key words in reading assignments.
8. Utilize cassette tapes, films and filmstrips.
1. Organize material in small steps.
2. Provide immediate feedback. Utilize positive reinforcement as much as possible.
3. Use tutors, aides or peer teaching techniques.
4. Use imitation and modeling techniques.
5. Provide visually oriented instruction.
6. Use demonstration techniques.
7. Assess reading level of books/workbooks (modify if necessary).
8. Allow more time to complete assignments.
9. Provide instruction in step-by-step format.
1. Do not "coddle." Allow the student to do his/her own work and utilize the same evaluation standards as with non-ambulatory students.
2. Employ the "buddy system" for such activities as obtaining "hard to reach" stock or for reaching inaccessible switches or handles.
3. Focus on the pupil's abilities rather than the pupil's disability.
4. Make necessary modifications to the physical plant, tools and machines. (See later suggestions.)
1. Never call attention to a special speech problem.
2. Pay careful attention when the pupil is speaking.
3. Do not say words for students when they have difficulty in producing the words.
4. Provide success-oriented, non-speech activities.
5. Use the consultative services of a speech therapist.
6. Label tools in the laboratory.
7. Use diagrams, pictures and charts where possible in the place of written material.
8. Allow time for speaking without finishing sentences for students.
9. Give a vocabulary of technology education words to the speech therapist for individual work.
10. Smile and nod your head when pupils is communicating with you.
11. Maintain eye contact.
12. Promote positive interpersonal relationships through group activities.
13. Recognize student ridicule as ignorance or fear and deal with it accordingly.
1. Allow for student absences. For example, video-taping lessons that can be viewed at home or in a hospital.
2. Consult health team to assess needs for technology education.
3. Use peer tutoring.
4. In many cases, the same strategies that were identified for students with physical-disabilities apply here.
5. Allow time for taking medication if necessary.
6. Use notetakers and/or tape recorders.
1. Do not raise your voice. The blind are not necessarily hearing impaired.
2. Speak directly to the blind student (not to a third party).
3. When talking to a blind student, use the words you normally use. Do not try to avoid words like "look" and "see," which are part of everyone's vocabulary.
4. If discussing a form or handout, describe these to the visually-impaired.
5. When teaching or explaining something to a blind person, be consistent in your directions since he or she cannot watch what you are doing. Explain fully and whenever possible let the sense of touch substitute for vision.
6. Say what you are doing when you demonstrate. Check your terms to avoid abstractness (e.g., "This fastens on there. . .").
7. Make clear how similar parts or processes can be distinguished by touch or sound.
8. Make sure that you say everything you write on the chalkboard.
9. Encourage sighted classmates to be helpful but not to do the student's work.
10. Seat the visually-impaired student in a position where he or she can hear you clearly and has adequate lighting.
11. Keep the students informed of any changes in arrangements of furniture or equipment.
The previous suggestions, by and large, dealt with strategies for enhancing accessibility by modifying curriculum and/or instructional practices. The accessibility issue for the modification of physical facilities and/or tools and equipment may present unique challenges for technology educators. It must be noted, however, that this issue is mainly the concern when serving students with physical-disabilities or other health-impaired--a population that will be prevalent on a very infrequent basis (less than two percent of the 1988-1989 school population). Nevertheless, it is important that facilities be accessible for all students.
The passage of The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (P.L. 101-336) (signed into law in 1990) could be a major force in helping all teachers (including technology education instructors) in making facilities accessible. This law is patterned after Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and extends civil rights protection to persons with disabilities in private sector employment, all public services, public accommodations, transportation and telecommunications. Section 504 called for architectural accessibility for students, teachers and others with physical and sensory-impairments; however, the emphasis was on accessibility to programs, not on the physical modification of all existing structures (Heward & Orlansky, 1992). The key provisions concerning technology educators of the new ADA, of which major provisions go into effect in 1992 and 1994 are:
1. All new buildings must be made accessible.
2. All existing facilities must remove barriers (if the removal can be accomplished without much difficulty or expense).
The ADA may provide the impetus for making facilities accessible (it is hoped that resources will be available as well), but the modification of equipment and tools is the responsibility of the Technology Education Program.
Shackelford and Henak (1983) provide an excellent conceptualization of problems which "handicap" students with physical disabilities when they work in technology education facilities. They describe the environment (laboratories, equipment, etc.) as the "built (by humans)" environment. Since most of us are not disabled, the built environment is designed for those of us with "average" height, weight, strength and other physical attributes. Since we live in a market-driven economy, most of the "built" world is manufactured to "fit" average people and not those with disabilities.
An example is the ball-handle-ratchet driven screwdriver. The first such devices were designed for a few people with limited fine-motor dexterity and/or strength. Therefore, the costs of these devices were prohibitive. It wasn't until "average" people also found utility in this tool, that the costs were reduced. (Manufacturers found a "market" for thousands instead of a few hundred.) The same example could be shown for the "scanner" that many of us use with our computers. The first such devices were designed for the blind as text readers with voice output and cost over ten-thousand dollars. Now, a text scanner, used by the general population, can be purchased for around one-thousand dollars.
Shackelford and Henak (1983) offer a system for improving the "interface" between a person with disabilities and the built environment (Fig 2).
Using this systematic approach can help one understand the inputs to the problem; to plan modifications through thoughtful analysis and to design and evaluate outputs (solutions) to accessibility. (The reader is referred to Shackelford and Henak's ITEA monograph for more information.)
Shackelford and Henak (1983) state that a facility is physically accessible when disabled and non-disabled students can maneuver in space; approach, assume a proper working position; and use equipment, materials and services; obtain tools and supplies; transport tools and supplies; manipulate controls on machines, tools and space; and communicate by sending and receiving information. Figure 3 summarizes concerns under each of these categories.
Technology education has made great strides during the last two decades in moving towards excellence. Changes in curriculum, teacher training and instructional strategies have helped spearhead a move to more innovative programs which are responsive to the needs of youths who will be living in the twenty-first century and beyond. However, technology education will not achieve true excellence until its programs are accessible and response to the needs of all pupils.
Students with special-needs can and should be a part of our society's mainstream of citizens, workers and homemakers. The world of the future will be more technological in its design and its society will need to be more technologically literate in order to negotiate its ever increasing complexities. Technology education programs can provide educational experiences to help tomorrow's citizens cope with their technological world.
As a result of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, persons with disabilities will no longer be shut out of the equal employment opportunities that the rest of us enjoy. And, like all of us, persons with disabilities will require the knowledge and skills gleaned from technology education in order to be successful in their quests. Ironically, as a result of technological advances in medicine (e.g., prostheses, transplants and implants) disabled persons may need "technological knowledge" in order to facilitate their own personal needs and may, therefore, need the benefits of technology education more than the "normal" population!
The challenge is before us. If we fail to include students with special-needs in our educational programs (and society in general) then we all lose. We lose a valuable portion of society's human potential which can contribute to all of our needs--economically, intellectually and personally.
We, as technology educators, have a golden opportunity awaiting us. It is "written" on the faces and hearts of all of those wonderful children who are eagerly awaiting opportunities to learn with us. These children with special-needs are more like us than different. Let's give them a chance.
1. What are the pro's and con's of using labels in identifying special-needs children?
2. Differentiate between the terms "disability" and "handicap."
3. "Student first, disability second." Why is this a good practice?
4. Define the following terms: Special-Needs; Exceptional Learners; At-Risk Learners.
5. What four groups of students with disabilities comprise ninety-four percent of the school age population children receiving special education?
6. Provide a description of the following landmark pieces of legislation pertaining to students with disabilities.
A. P.L. 94-142 The Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975
B. P.L. 101-336 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
C. P.L. 101-476 Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1990
7. What is an Individualized Education Program (I.E.P.)?
8. Describe four technology education placement options which could result from an I.E.P. meeting.
9. How would you make technology education accessible for students with disabilities? (Describe the process)
Additional Assignments
1. Visit the "Office of Disability Services" on your campus.
2. Visit an architect's office and obtain guidelines for "barrier free" design for architectural structure.
3. Conduct a "sensitivity session" by "handicapping" your peers (using blindfolds, wheelchairs, limb restraints, etc.). Have them perform a production activity while "handicapped."
References
Buffer, J. J., Jr., & Scott, M. L. (1986). Special needs guide for technology education. Reston, VA: International Technology Education Association.
Friedenberg, J. E., Izzo, M. V., & Cartledge, G. (1991). Serving vocational students with disabilities: Guidelines for infusing preservice vocational and special education curricula. Columbus: Center on Education and Training for Employment, The Ohio State University.
Heron, T. E., & Harris, K. C. (In press). The educational consultant: Helping professionals, parents, and mainstreamed students (3rd ed.).
Heward, W. L., & Orlansky, M. D. (1992). Exceptional children: An introductory survey of special education (4th ed.). New York: Maxwell Macmillan.
Kimeldorf, M. R. (1984). Special needs in technology education: A resource guide for teachers. Worcester, MA: Davis.
Lovitt, T. C. (1979). What should we call them? Exceptional Teacher, 1(1), 5-7.
Sarkees, M. D., & Scott, J. L. (1986). Vocational special needs (2nd ed.). Homewood, IL: American Technical Publishers.
Shackelford, R., & Henak, R. (1983 ). Making industrial education facilities accessible to the physically disabled. A Professional Monograph of the American Industrial Arts Association, Reston, VA.
The National Center for Research in Vocational Education. (1979). Let's find the special people: Identifying and locating special needs learners. Columbus: The Ohio State University.